DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EARLY VEDIC AND LATER VEDIC PERIODS
Aspect | Early Vedic Period (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE) | Later Vedic Period (c. 1000 – 600 BCE) |
Main Texts |
Rig Veda (oldest of the four Vedas) | Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads |
Geographical Extent | Punjab, Haryana, parts of Afghanistan (Sapta Sindhu region) | Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, parts of Bengal (Ganga-Yamuna Doab expansion) |
Society |
Semi-nomadic, tribal and pastoral society |
Settled, agrarian and hierarchical society |
Political Structure |
Tribal polity (rajan, sabha, samiti) with limited powers |
Hereditary monarchy; decline of sabha and samiti |
Kinship |
Kin-based social organization |
Larger political units (janapadas, kingdoms like Kuru, Panchala) |
Varna System |
Flexible varna system based on occupation |
Rigid caste hierarchy; emergence of social stratification |
Status of Women | Women enjoyed respectable status: could attend assemblies and compose hymns | Decline in status: child marriage, restricted religious roles, no Upanayana |
Economy |
Predominantly pastoral (cow = wealth), some agriculture | Agrarian-based economy, use of iron tools (KRISHNA AYAS = black metal) |
Agriculture |
Secondary activity, shifting cultivation |
Primary occupation; ploughing and irrigation introduced |
Trade s Craft |
Limited barter trade, domestic crafts | Increase in crafts (pottery, metal work), surplus production and trade |
Iron Usage |
Not known or very minimal | Widespread use of iron (black metal/Krishna Ayas), cleared forests for farming |
Religion | Naturalistic: Indra (war god), Agni, Varuna, Surya were prominent deities | Ritualistic: Prajapati (creator), Vishnu, Rudra (later forms of Shiva) emerge |
Rituals |
Simple fire sacrifices (yajnas), household rituals | Elaborate rituals and sacrifices (Ashvamedha, Rajasuya), priestly dominance |
Priestly Class |
Brahmins had roles, but not dominant |
Brahmins became powerful and authoritative |
Literature |
Mainly hymns, praises to nature and gods (Rigvedic hymns) | Ritual texts, philosophy (Upanishads), theology and metaphysics |
Philosophy |
Absent; focus on practical and ritualistic life | Beginnings of philosophical thought (karma, rebirth, moksha in Upanishads) |
Settlements |
Small tribal settlements (gramas), temporary shelters |
Large permanent settlements, towns, fortified villages (nagaras) |
Art s Pottery |
Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) |
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) associated with Mahajanapadas |
Language |
Early Vedic Sanskrit (more pure, less Sanskritised) |
Later Vedic Sanskrit (more grammatical and codified) |
Education |
Oral traditions, knowledge passed from rishis to disciples |
Formal education begins; Gurukula system develops |
Women Scholars | Women like Lopamudra, Gargi, Ghosha, Apala composed hymns | Few known women scholars; philosophical debates limited to male Brahmins |
CONCLUSION:
- The Early Vedic period was more egalitarian, pastoral, and nature-worshipping with simpler socio-political systems.
- The Later Vedic period witnessed socio-economic and religious transformation: emergence of kingdoms, rigid varna system, Brahmanical supremacy, large settlements, and use of iron tools for agriculture.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MESOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC PERIODS
Aspect | Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age) | Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) |
Time Period (India) |
c. 10,000 BCE – 8,000 BCE |
c. 7000 BCE – 1000 BCE |
Tools | Microliths (small, sharp tools made of flint and quartz) |
Polished stone tools, axes, chisels, and grinding tools |
Tool Technology | Mostly flaked tools; composite tools (microliths hafted on wood) |
Ground and polished stone tools; pottery making begins |
Lifestyle | Semi-nomadic hunter- gatherers; some seasonal camps |
Settled life in villages; permanent houses made of mud and clay |
Economy |
Hunting, fishing, and food gathering |
Agriculture and animal domestication |
Agriculture |
No agriculture, except wild grain collection |
Systematic agriculture (wheat, barley, rice cultivation begins) |
Animal Domestication |
Limited (possibly dog domesticated) |
Domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs |
Food Sources |
Wild fruits, tubers, meat, fish |
Cultivated crops, dairy, meat from domesticated animals |
Pottery | Little or no pottery; occasional use of stone/wooden containers |
Handmade and later wheel-made pottery, decorated and functional |
Settlements |
Temporary seasonal shelters or caves |
Permanent settlements with planned layouts and granaries |
Important Sites (India) | Bagor (Rajasthan), Adamgarh (MP), Bhimbetka (MP), Langhnaj (Gujarat) | Mehrgarh (Baluchistan, now in Pakistan), Burzahom (JCK), Chirand (Bihar), Daojali Hading (Assam), Hallur (Karnataka) |
Burial Practices |
Simple burials, few grave goods |
Elaborate burials with grave goods; pit dwellings in some regions |
Art | Rock paintings (e.g., Bhimbetka) showing animals, hunting scenes |
Pottery decoration, stone sculptures, use of terracotta figures |
Social Structure |
Small bands or tribes; kin- based |
Beginning of social organization, early community and clan systems |
Use of Fire |
Known and used for cooking and protection |
Regular use of fire; hearths in homes, cooking with utensils |
Knowledge of Architecture |
Huts made with sticks, grass, and leaves |
Mud-brick houses, circular or rectangular with multiple rooms |
Clothing |
Animal skins and bark clothing |
Cotton, wool, and animal skin-based clothing |
Religious Practices |
Animism, ancestor worship; minimal evidence |
Fertility worship (e.g., mother goddess figurines), early rituals |
CONCLUSION:
- The Mesolithic Age acted as a transitional phase between the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone Age), witnessing advancements in tools and some shift toward food management.
- The Neolithic Period marked the true beginning of civilization with agriculture, domestication, pottery, and permanent settlements—leading to social complexity and technological innovation.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NEOLITHIC AND CHALCOLITHIC PERIODS
Aspect | Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) | Chalcolithic Period (Copper- Stone Age) |
Time Period (India) |
c. 7000 BCE – 1000 BCE |
c. 3000 BCE – 1000 BCE (varies regionally) |
Name Meaning |
“Neo” = new, “lithic” = stone (New Stone Age) |
“Chalco” = copper, “lithic” = stone (Copper-Stone Age) |
Tools Used |
Polished stone tools, hand axes, grinding tools |
Stone tools and copper tools (coexistence) |
Metal Use |
No use of metal |
First known use of copper (no iron yet) |
Agriculture |
Systematic agriculture began (wheat, barley, rice) | Agriculture continued with better tools, sometimes more advanced |
Animal Domestication |
Cattle, sheep, goat, dog, etc. domesticated |
Continued domestication; used for dairy, farming, and rituals |
Pottery |
Handmade pottery; coarse and undecorated (grey, red ware) | Well-fired, painted pottery (e.g., Black-and-Red Ware, Ochre Ware) |
Lifestyle |
Settled life in villages; mud-brick or pit dwellings | More advanced villages, with evidence of fortifications and planning |
Economic Activities |
Subsistence economy: farming, animal rearing, food gathering | Mixed economy: agriculture, metal use, trade, craft production |
Settlements |
Early small rural settlements (circular or rectangular houses) |
Larger, better-organized villages; urban elements begin |
Burial Practices |
Pit burials, some grave goods, family burial traditions |
Elaborate burials with copper items, pottery, ornaments |
Important Indian Sites | Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan), Burzahom (JCK), Chirand (Bihar), Daojali Hading (Assam) | Ahar (Rajasthan), Malwa (MP), Inamgaon and Jorwe (Maharashtra), Kayatha (MP) |
Art and Craft |
Basic terracotta, mother goddess figurines |
More refined art, beads, ornaments, painted pottery |
Religious Beliefs |
Worship of nature, fertility goddesses, animism |
Same beliefs + evidence of ritual use of metals and idols |
Social Structure |
Kin-based or clan-based rural societies |
Social stratification begins; chiefs or elites emerged |
CONCLUSION:
- The Neolithic Period marked the beginning of agriculture and settled life, using only stone tools.
- The Chalcolithic Period succeeded it in many regions and introduced metal use (copper) alongside stone, leading to technological, social, and cultural advancements. It is considered a transitional phase between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age or Iron Age.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAURYAN AND POST-MAURYAN PERIODS
Aspect | Mauryan Period (c. 321–185 BCE) | Post-Mauryan Period (c. 185 BCE – 300 CE) |
Founding Dynasty | Maurya Dynasty founded by Chandragupta Maurya (with Kautilya’s help) | Multiple regional and foreign dynasties: Shungas, Kanvas, Indo- Greeks, Kushans, Satavahanas, Sakas |
Famous Rulers | Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, Ashoka the Great | Pushyamitra Shunga, Kanishka, Rudradaman I, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Menander (Milinda) |
Extent of Empire | Pan-Indian empire: from Afghanistan to Bengal and Karnataka | Fragmented kingdoms; no pan-India empire, but large regional powers emerged |
Political Administration | Centralized administration (as per Arthashastra, Megasthenes’ Indica) | Decentralized rule; Satrap system (under Indo-Greeks/Sakas); feudatory control |
Army s Warfare | Large standing army with infantry, cavalry, elephants (Megasthenes’ account) | Smaller regional armies; alliances and mercenaries used; Guerilla warfare by Satavahanas |
Weapons and Techniques | Iron weapons, bows, swords, chariots; elephants as military asset | Continued iron use; introduction of new cavalry warfare by Sakas/Kushans (Central Asian) |
Major Battles | Kalinga War (261 BCE, Ashoka); Battle with Seleucus I (Chandragupta) | Indo-Greek wars, Saka-Parthian- Kushan conflicts, Shaka- Satavahana wars, Roman contacts |
Foreign Relations | Envoys like Megasthenes, Deimachus, Dionysius came to Mauryan court | Roman, Greek, Chinese embassies; Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien came during Gupta, but routes active earlier |
Foreign Travelers |
Megasthenes (Indica) during Chandragupta’s reign | Menander (Milinda), later Chinese monks like Fa-Hien, Buddhist missionaries |
Economy | State-controlled economy, tax system, state monopolies (e.g., mining, trade) | Private economy flourished, trade guilds (shrenis), regional monetization, Roman trade |
Coins | Punch-marked coins, silver standard, uninscribed but symbolic | Cast coins, inscribed coins, Indo- Greek coins with Hellenistic art, Satavahana coins |
Trade and Commerce | Inland trade with fixed trade routes; foreign trade through ports like Tamralipti | Expanded foreign trade with Romans (via Red Sea), Southeast Asia, China |
Society | Highly stratified Varna system; women had limited roles | Further Brahmanization, but also rise of heterodox sects; urbanization led to new classes |
Religion | Dominance of Buddhism (Ashoka’s patronage), Vedic rituals early on | Hindu revival under Shungas, Satavahanas; also Buddhism and Jainism flourished |
Art s Architecture | Mauryan polish, rock-cut caves, Ashokan pillars, Sarnath Lion Capital | Stupas (Sanchi, Bharhut), Gandhara s Mathura art, Chaitya- Viharas, cave temples |
Sculpture | Royal C symbolic (e.g., lion capital, yaksha-yakshi figures) |
Narrative reliefs on stupas, Greco- Buddhist art, Bhaja, Karle caves |
Architecture Materials |
Stone (with polished finish), wood, bricks |
Rock-cut architecture, less polish, more ornamentation |
Inscriptions | Ashokan Edicts (Major C Minor, in Prakrit, Greek, Aramaic, Brahmi, Kharosthi) | Inscriptions in Brahmi, Kharosthi, Sanskrit; e.g., Rudradaman’s Junagarh inscription |
Language s Script | Prakrit (common), Sanskrit (elite); Brahmi, Kharosthi scripts | Sanskrit gains status (Satavahanas, Shungas); Prakrits, Greek, and regional scripts |
Literature | Arthashastra, Buddhist texts, Jataka tales, early Jain Agamas | Sanskrit poetry, Pali Canon expansion, Milindapanho, Gatha Saptashati (Prakrit) |
Science s Technology | Arithmetic, statecraft (Arthashastra), basic metallurgy | Medicine, astronomy, Ayurveda (Charaka s Sushruta), calendar systems developed |
Decline | After Ashoka’s death, weak successors; final fall to Pushyamitra Shunga | Post-Maurya saw transitions to Gupta Empire, which consolidated northern India |
KEY EXAMPLES & DYNASTIES (POST-MAURYA)
Dynasty | Founder / Ruler | Region | Notes |
Shunga Dynasty |
Pushyamitra Shunga |
Magadha/North India | Re-established Brahmanical rule, patronized art |
Kanvas |
Vasudeva |
Magadha | Last Magadhan dynasty before Satavahana expansion |
Satavahanas | Simuka (founder), Gautamiputra Satakarni | Deccan, Maharashtra, Andhra |
Patron of Vedic and Buddhist traditions |
Indo-Greeks | Demetrius I, Menander I (Milinda) | NW India (Gandhara, Punjab) | Promoted Greco- Buddhist culture, coins with Greek text |
Sakas (Western Kshatrapas) |
Chashtana, Rudradaman I |
Gujarat, Malwa | Sanskrit inscriptions (Junagadh), patron of irrigation |
Kushanas |
Kanishka the Great |
North India, Central Asia | Patron of Mahayana Buddhism, Gandhara art |
Parthians |
Gondophares |
NW India |
Minor role; Greek influences remain |
IMPORTANT ART CONTRIBUTIONS
Period | Examples |
Mauryan | Sarnath Lion Capital, Ashokan Pillars, Barabar caves |
Post-Mauryan | Sanchi Stupa, Amaravati Stupa, Karla C Ajanta caves, Gandhara Art |
MPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS
Inscription | Period | Significance |
Ashoka’s Edicts |
Mauryan | Edicts on Dhamma, animal welfare, religious tolerance |
Rudradaman’s Junagarh |
Post-Mauryan (150 CE) | First long Sanskrit inscription, records irrigation repair |
Hathigumpha Inscription | Post-Mauryan (Kharavela, Kalinga) |
Achievements of Kharavela (Jain king) |
CONCLUSION (UPSC ANSWER TIPS):
- The Mauryan period was marked by centralized rule, uniform administration, and Ashoka’s ethical governance.
- The post-Mauryan period saw fragmentation, cultural synthesis (especially Indo-Greek C Kushan), regional powers, and rise of Sanskritization.
- This was a crucial transitional era leading to the Gupta Age, often called the Classical Age of Indian History.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GUPTA AND POST-GUPTA PERIODS
Aspect | Gupta Period (c. 320–550 CE) | Post-Gupta Period (c. 550–1200 CE) |
Political Structure |
Centralized monarchy under the Gupta Empire | Fragmented polity: Regional kingdoms (Harshavardhana, Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Cholas) |
Founding Dynasty |
Gupta dynasty founded by Chandragupta I | Multiple dynasties: Vardhanas, Palas, Pratiharas, Cholas, Rashtrakutas, Chahamanas, Paramaras |
Famous Kings | Samudragupta, Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya), Skandagupta | Harshavardhana, Dharampala, Bhoja, Raja Raja Chola, Rajendra Chola I, Mahendrapala, etc. |
Extent of Empire | Northern India to parts of Deccan (Magadha, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat) | Smaller kingdoms across north and south India; no pan-India empire |
Administration | Well-structured bureaucracy, provinces (Bhuktis), districts (Vishayas) | Feudal pattern evolved; more autonomy to feudatories, growing land grants and hereditary offices |
Society | Varna system rigidified, increased Brahmanical dominance, limited women’s roles | Further stratification; rise of Rajput identity, women’s status declined, sati and child marriage rose |
Economy |
Agrarian base + flourishing internal and foreign trade | Decline in long-distance trade; agrarian economy with feudal characteristics; temple-based local economies |
Coins | Gold coins (Dinar) with king’s image and inscriptions (Samudragupta, Chandragupta II) | Decline in gold coinage; increased use of copper and silver coins; debased coinage |
Trade | Both inland and foreign (via sea and Silk Route); trade with Byzantine Empire, SE Asia | Foreign trade declined; Arab intermediaries increased; regional trade (temple economy) flourished |
Art s Architecture | Classical age of Hindu temple architecture, Ajanta caves, Dashavatara Temple, Sarnath school | Regional styles: Dravidian temples (Cholas), Nagara style (Pratiharas), rock-cut caves (Ellora) |
Sculpture | Gupta school: idealized human forms, grace, smooth finishing | Regional variations; more ornate, elongated figures, narrative depictions |
Literature | Sanskrit golden age: Kalidasa (Shakuntala, Meghadutam), Bhasa, Vishakhadatta, Amarasimha | Rise of regional languages (Tamil, Kannada, Bengali); works like Harshacharita (Banabhatta), Manimekalai |
Science s Technology | Aryabhata (mathematics, astronomy), Varahamihira (astrology), medical texts (Charaka, Sushruta) | Limited innovation; Bhaskaracharya, later advancements in astronomy in South India |
Weapons s Warfare | Infantry, cavalry, elephants; bows, swords, armor; naval fleet under Chandragupta II | Similar arms, heavy cavalry, war elephants, advanced naval warfare under Cholas |
Major Wars | Skandagupta’s defense against Huna invasions, Samudragupta’s expansion | Tripartite struggle (Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas); Chola campaigns against Srivijaya, Northern expeditions |
Army |
Professional standing army; Gupta navy, strong infantry | More reliance on feudatory troops, warrior clans (e.g., Rajputs), and temple-sponsored armies |
Alliances s Marriages | Strategic marriages (e.g., Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi of Lichchhavis) | Alliances via marriages among Rajput clans, religious patronage |
Foreign Travelers |
Fa-Hien (China) visited during Chandragupta II’s reign | Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) visited Harshavardhana’s court; Arab travelers, Al-Biruni (later during Ghaznavid rule) |
Religion | Dominance of Hinduism (Vaishnavism), revival of Brahmanism; Buddhism declined in royal patronage | Rise of Bhakti movement, growth of Shaivism, Tantrism, Jainism in West India; Buddhism persisted in East |
Religious Architecture | Early Hindu temples (e.g., Deogarh), Buddhist cave monasteries (Ajanta) | Grand stone temples (e.g., Brihadeshwara), cave temples (Ellora), Viharas s Mathas |
Language s Script |
Sanskrit (court language), inscriptions in Brahmi script | Sanskrit + regional languages: Tamil, Kannada, Bengali; scripts: Nagari, Tamil-Brahmi |
Education s Universities | Nalanda University flourished (state-supported), Taxila in decline | Vikramashila, Odantapuri (under Palas), continued influence of Nalanda |
Decline | Invasions by Hunas, internal revolts, weak successors after Skandagupta | Turkish invasions, internal feuds, lack of unity, regionalization, rise of Delhi Sultanate (after 1200 CE) |
KEY POST-GUPTA DYNASTIES & CONTRIBUTIONS
Vardhanas |
Thanesar- Kannauj |
Harshavardhana |
Patron of Nalanda, author of plays, hosted Xuanzang |
Palas |
Bengal-Bihar | Gopala, Dharampala, Devapala |
Buddhist patrons, Vikramashila C Odantapuri universities |
Pratiharas | North C Western India |
Bhoja I |
Art, temples (e.g., Khajuraho), part of tripartite struggle |
Rashtrakutas |
Deccan |
Govinda III, Amoghavarsha |
Patron of art, literature (Kavirajamarga), Ellora caves |
Cholas |
Tamil Nadu |
Raja Raja Chola I, Rajendra I | Brihadeshwara Temple, naval conquests to SE Asia, efficient administration |
Chahamanas |
Rajasthan |
Prithviraj Chauhan |
Fought Ghori in First Battle of Tarain (1191) |
IMPORTANT FOREIGN TRAVELERS AND ACCOUNTS
Traveler | From | Visited | Notes |
Fa-Hien |
China | Gupta Empire (Chandragupta II) |
Described cities, religion, society |
Xuanzang |
China |
Harshavardhana’s court | Nalanda University, Harsha’s administration |
Al-Biruni | Persia (Islamic) | Post-Gupta (11th century) | Scientific and cultural study of India (book: Tahqiq-i-Hind) |
Arab Traders |
Arabia |
Kerala, Gujarat ports | Described local economy, spice trade, Indian Ocean routes |
CONCLUSION (UPSC NOTES STYLE)
- The Gupta Empire is known as the “Golden Age” of India in terms of Sanskrit literature, science, and art with strong political unity.
- The Post-Gupta Period saw regional fragmentation, diverse cultural developments, linguistic rise, and early feudalism, laying the foundation for medieval India.
- Understanding this transition is crucial to explain the decline of classical polity and the rise of regional identities and medieval state formations.
WHY GUPTA PERIOD IS KNOWN AS THE GOLDEN AGE OF INDIA
- Flourishing Arts s Architecture
- Gupta rulers patronized classical art
- Example: Ajanta Caves frescoes, Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh (early Nagara style).
- Classical Sanskrit Literature
- Era of literary giants like Kalidasa (Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghadutam), Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa).
- Sanskrit became the court language and cultural
- Scientific Advancement
- Aryabhata wrote Aryabhatiya (concept of zero, rotation of earth).
- Varahamihira contributed to astronomy, astrology (Brihat Samhita).
- Strong Economy s Trade
- Issuance of pure gold coins (Dinars), active inland and foreign
- Prosperity supported cultural and intellectual
- Religious Tolerance s Temple Building
- Though Vaishnavism was dominant, Buddhism and Jainism
- Nalanda Mahavihara was a major Buddhist educational
- Political Stability s Governance
- Centralized administration under rulers like Chandragupta II and
Samudragupta.
- Efficient bureaucracy with officials like Kumaramatyas.
- Foreign Accounts
- Chinese traveler Fa-Hien praised the prosperity, law C order, and societal harmony of Gupta India.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PALAS, PRATIHARAS, AND RASHTRAKUTAS
Aspect | Palas | Pratiharas | Rashtrakutas |
Region (Core Area) |
Bengal s Bihar (Eastern India) | Western s Northern India (Rajasthan, UP, MP, Gujarat) | Deccan region (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh) |
Founder |
Gopala (elected around 750 CE) |
Nagabhata I (early 8th century) |
Dantidurga (circa 735 CE) |
Capital(s) | Monghyr, later Pataliputra C Vikramshila | Kannauj (major center of Tripartite struggle) |
Manyakheta (modern Malkhed, Karnataka) |
Famous Rulers |
Dharampala, Devapala | Nagabhata II, Mihira Bhoja, Mahendrapala I | Govinda III, Amoghavarsha I, Krishna III |
Nature of Rule | Hereditary monarchy with Buddhist patronage |
Hindu monarchy with Brahmanical backing | Strong central monarchy with military expeditions |
Major Religion | Mahayana Buddhism, also patronized Hinduism | Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Brahmanical Hinduism |
Shaivism, Jainism, some Buddhism |
Educational Contributions | Founded Nalanda, Vikramashila, Odantapuri universities | Supported temple learning; less focus on formal universities | Amoghavarsha I patronized Kavirajamarga (Kannada literature), matha system |
Art s Architecture | Buddhist Viharas, stupas, Somapura Mahavihara (UNESCO site) | Nagara-style temples (Khajuraho group attributed to Pratihara patrons) | Rock-cut architecture (Ellora caves), Dravidian and Vesara styles |
Coins | Silver coins with Buddhist symbols, Sanskrit legends | Silver and copper coins, often with king’s name and Devanagari script | Gold and silver coins, often with Kannada legends and animal motifs |
Language s Literature |
Sanskrit, Pali |
Sanskrit, early Hindi dialects | Sanskrit, Kannada (earliest known literary works), Prakrit |
Role in Tripartite Struggle | Yes, fought for Kannauj dominance | Yes, central power in the Tripartite Struggle | Yes, contested with Pratiharas and Palas over Kannauj |
Military Strength | Strong cavalry and elephant corps; repelled Gurjara- Pratiharas | Powerful army with Rajput warriors, fort- based defense | Advanced army; conquered north India and Sri Lanka at times |
Naval Power |
Limited naval activities |
Not prominent | Had naval expeditions; Krishna III even fought in Kerala |
Relations with Foreigners | Friendly ties with Southeast Asia, Buddhists from Tibet and China |
Known through Arab accounts (Al-Masudi) | Contact with Arabs, Persians, and Sri Lanka |
Cultural Contributions | Helped spread Buddhism to Tibet and SE Asia, art flourished | Patronized Sanskrit, temple building, sculpture | Literature, temple building (Ellora), mathas, support to Jainism |
Famous Travelers’ Accounts | Xuanzang (Nalanda under Pala protection), Tibetan sources | Arab travelers like Al-Masudi mention Pratihara wealth | Al-Masudi C Al-Idrisi mention Rashtrakuta court as one of richest in the world |
Time Period | ca. 750 – 1161 CE (till fall to Sena dynasty) | ca. 725 – 1036 CE (decline with rise of Ghaznavids and Chalukyas) | ca. 735 – G82 CE (decline after Chalukyas of Kalyani rose) |
Decline |
Defeated by Chola raids, rise of Senas | Defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni, rise of Rajput states | Defeated by Paramaras, Western Chalukyas, internal revolts |
TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE (FOR CONTROL OF KANNAUJ)
Kingdom | Ambition | Result |
Palas |
Control over Kannauj to extend eastward influence |
Temporarily successful under Dharampala |
Pratiharas |
Considered Kannauj their stronghold |
Dominated Kannauj for longest duration (under Bhoja I) |
Rashtrakutas |
Launched raids from Deccan to Kannauj |
Brief control under Govinda III, but couldn’t hold long-term |
CONCLUSION (UPSC SUMMARY)
- Palas: Eastern India, Buddhist revival, patronage of education and international diplomacy (Nalanda, Tibet).
- Pratiharas: Northern C Western India, strong defenders against Arab invasions, patronized Hindu temple
- Rashtrakutas: Deccan, patrons of Kannada and Sanskrit, rock-cut temples (Ellora), engaged in northern wars and southern
- Their combined legacies shaped early medieval India’s political decentralization, regional cultures, and cultural achievements.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHOLA, CHERA, AND PANDYA DYNASTIES
Aspect | Cholas | Chera | Pandyas |
Region (Core Area) |
Thanjavur, Kaveri delta, Tamil Nadu | Central Kerala C parts of western Tamil Nadu (Malabar coast) |
Madurai region in Tamil Nadu |
Capital(s) | Thanjavur, later Gangaikonda Cholapuram |
Vanchi (Karur or near Kodungallur) |
Madurai |
Time Period (peak) |
850 CE – 127G CE (Imperial Cholas) | c. 300 BCE – 1100 CE (three phases: Early, Medieval, Later) | 600 BCE – 14th century CE (several revivals) |
Founders/Promi nent Kings | Vijayalaya Chola, Raja Raja Chola I, Rajendra Chola I | Uthiyan Cheralathan, Senguttuvan | Kadungon (reviver), Maravarman Sundara Pandya, Jatavarman Sundara Pandya |
Political Strength | Strong empire, efficient administration, overseas expeditions | Regional power, often sandwiched between Cholas and Pandyas | Regained power post- Sangam, strong military, defeated Cholas occasionally |
Economy | Flourished agriculture, well- irrigated Kaveri delta, active trade with SE Asia | Pepper, spices, timber trade with Rome, Arabia, China | Rich agrarian economy, pearl fisheries, trade with SE Asia |
Naval Power | Very strong navy; raids on Srivijaya (Sumatra), maintained maritime supremacy |
Moderate naval activity |
Had seafaring activities, mainly trading rather than conquest |
Foreign Trade | Trade with China, Southeast Asia, Arabian peninsula, etc. | Trade with Rome, Egypt, SE Asia (aromatic products, spices) | Extensive Indian Ocean trade, especially in pearls, spices |
Religion | Primarily Shaivism, also supported Vaishnavism, Jainism, Buddhism | Mainly Shaivism; Buddhist influence seen in Sangam works |
Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Jainism |
Art s Architecture | Dravidian style, grand temples: Brihadeshwara (Thanjavur), Gangaikondacholap uram | Early megaliths, hill temples; later Kerala-style temple architecture |
Rock-cut temples, gopurams, Meenakshi Temple complex |
Literature | Supported Tamil s Sanskrit; Thevaram, Periyapuranam, Kamba Ramayanam | Sangam literature; Pathitrupathu, Silappatikaram | Sangam literature: Akananuru, Purananuru, Thirukkural |
Language | Tamil (primary), Sanskrit (in inscriptions) | Tamil and early Malayalam (proto- Malayalam) |
Tamil |
Administration | Highly organized, village autonomy via sabhas s ur, inscriptions on temple walls |
Less centralized; local chieftain- based governance |
Similar to Cholas; village assemblies, land grants |
Inscriptions | Tamil inscriptions using Grantha script, copper plates (e.g., Leiden Grant) | Tamil-Brahmi, early inscriptions from Sangam period | Inscriptions on temples, copper plates, mostly in Tamil |
Coinage | Gold, silver, and copper coins; lion, fish, tiger emblems | Rare coins with bow and arrow symbols | Elephant, fish symbols; mainly copper and silver coins |
Alliances s Wars | Fought Cheras C Pandyas; conquered parts of Sri Lanka C SE Asia | Allied with Cholas at times, resisted Pandya dominance | Defeated Cholas during decline (13th century), clashed with Cheras |
Decline | Due to Pandya resurgence, Delhi Sultanate raids, internal issues | Lost power to Cholas and Pandyas, later absorbed into Travancore | Defeated by Delhi Sultanate, later became vassals |
DETAILED ART & ARCHITECTURE EXAMPLES
CHOLA ART AND ARCHITECTURE (DRAVIDIAN STYLE)
Feature | Details and Examples |
Temples | – Brihadeshwara Temple, Thanjavur (Raja Raja Chola I, 1010 CE) – Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple – Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram |
Style | – Dravidian style, vimana (tower) taller than gopuram – Massive size, symmetry, elaborate sculptures |
Sculpture |
– Stone and bronze images of Shiva Nataraja, Parvati, Vishnu |
Bronze Casting | – World-famous Chola bronzes, especially Nataraja, using lost- wax technique |
Murals and Paintings |
– Frescoes in Chola temples, though most lost |
Inscriptions | – Temples served as cultural centers, contained records of donations, military victories on stone walls |
CHERA ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Feature | Details |
Early Monuments |
Megalithic burial sites, dolmens, urn burials |
Temple Architecture | Early forms of Kerala-style temples: sloped roofs, wooden structures, e.g., Thirunelli Temple |
Murals |
Possible influence in later Kerala murals |
Silappatikaram Influence | Cultural epic sponsored by Chera king Senguttuvan, linked to temple rituals and Tamil-Buddhist ideas |
PANDYA ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Feature | Details and Examples |
Temples | – Meenakshi Amman Temple, Madurai – Rock-cut temples in Tirunelveli, Kalugumalai |
Gopuram Style | Emphasis on ornate gopurams (gateway towers), later adopted by Vijayanagara |
Sculpture | Detailed iconography of deities, yalis, and mythological figures |
Literature Linked to Temples |
Sangam poetry often describes temples and rituals |
KEY FOREIGN CONTACTS
Dynasty | Foreign Links |
Chola | Trade and conquest in Sri Lanka, Srivijaya (Sumatra, SE Asia), China |
Chera | Trade with Rome, Arab merchants, spices exported from Muziris port |
Pandya | Roman coins found in Madurai, trade in pearls, spices, textiles with SE Asia |
UPSC SUMMARY POINTS
- Cholas built a powerful empire with advanced naval power, Dravidian temples, and artistic innovations (e.g., Nataraja bronzes).
- Cheras were rich in spice trade, developed early Kerala temple styles, and supported Tamil-Buddhist
- Pandyas revived power after Sangam age, became temple builders, and had strong maritime trade links.
- All three dynasties contributed richly to Sangam literature, temple culture, and Tamil identity.